All Contents
Overview

More than a third of American children cannot read by the 4th grade.

The National Institutes of Health has demonstrated that this unacceptable rate of failure, which disproportionately harms students of color, can be reduced to less than 1 in 10 when teachers utilize the five essential components of effective reading instruction: phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and reading comprehension. This standard provides feedback on the degree to which teacher prep programs provide instruction and practice on those approaches.

%

of programs provide sufficient coverage of early reading components.

Watch the short animated video above to learn about the NCTQ methodology for the Early Reading standard or dig deeper into the methodology and research below.
Info icon
See the research behind the Early Reading standard.
Read our Research Rationale
Findings

Over 50% of traditional programs provide adequate instruction in at least four of the five areas of scientifically-based reading compared to only 35% in 2013.

What Grade Do Traditional Elementary Programs Receive on Early Reading?
chart
See figure details Hide figure details
Info icon
See how each program scored on Early Reading.
Explore and search all program scores

Narrowly half (53%) of programs provide instruction in phonemic awareness, the first skill teachers need to teach before children can learn to read.

How Frequently Do Traditional Programs Address Each Component?
chart
See figure details Hide figure details
Insights

1

Programs have increased their coverage of all aspects of the science of reading, a trend that has persisted through each edition of the Teacher Prep Review.

Compared to the first Teacher Prep Review, at least 10% more programs now provide adequate instruction in each of the five components of scientifically-based reading. However, phonemic awareness, the first skill children must master if they are to become successful readers,1 remains the least likely to be taught in a program's coursework. Barely half of programs (53%) cover it adequately. Teachers are not any more likely to learn the importance of fluency (the ability to read without effort), with only 55% of programs providing adequate coverage of that component.

2

In its approach to reading preparation, the field of teacher education is at an inflection point, with momentum favoring the science of reading.

For the first time, more than half of all traditional programs earn an A or a B by providing adequate instruction for at least four of the five components of reading instruction. This represents a six-point increase since the 2016 edition and a 16-point increase over the 2013 edition.

3

The science of reading now prevails in undergraduate programs, with a clear majority now earning an A or B. However, graduate programs are stagnant.

Undergraduate programs have improved their coverage of scientifically-based reading instruction since NCTQ first began to examine them, with 57% now earning an A or B. This steady growth represents a 10-point improvement when compared to 2016 and an 18-point increase over the 2013 Teacher Prep Review.

Graduate programs2 improved slightly from 2013 to 2016, but have since stagnated. While a greater percentage of graduate programs earn an A in 2020, the percentage of programs earning the top two grades is unchanged from 2016. It is important to note that this is due in part to graduate programs that are appearing in the Teacher Prep Review for the first time, which on average score below programs that have appeared in previous editions.

When looking at coverage of the five components, the differences between undergraduate and graduate programs is pronounced. On average, there is a 20-point difference in the percentage of programs addressing each component.

Why the stark difference between undergraduate and graduate ratings? Two factors would seem to provide plausible explanations, but neither presents a clear answer. It is the case that graduate programs dedicate only two courses on average to reading instruction, compared to three courses on average by undergraduate programs. However, when two-course graduate programs are compared to two-course undergraduate programs, a meaningful difference in scores still persists (with undergraduate programs covering an average of three reading components, compared to just two for their graduate counterparts). It is also true that undergraduate and graduate reading courses are frequently taught by different faculty. However, this fact does not fully explain how undergraduate programs adequately cover an average of about one additional component consistently more than their graduate counterparts on the same campus.

The different scores earned by programs operating on the same campus speak to a broader issue NCTQ reported on in 2015, finding little commonality on a range of factors, including selectivity in admission, coursework choices, and significantly different approaches taken by individual professors on the same topic.3

4

There is substantial variation in adherence to reading science depending upon the state.

The 2019 data from the Nation's Report Card, known as NAEP (the National Assessment of Education Progress), found just one state with significantly improved fourth grade reading scores: Mississippi. The state's attention to teacher preparation in reading, alongside its investment in additional supports, such as literacy coaches, has been key to its success. In line with this collective commitment, for the second consecutive edition of the Teacher Prep Review, Mississippi programs earn the highest aggregate grade with nearly all 12 programs reviewed covering the five components.

5

By their very design, non-traditional (alternate route) programs are largely unable to prepare teachers to enter the classroom ready to teach reading.

In addition to undergraduate and graduate programs, NCTQ evaluated 58 non-traditional programs in early reading. The analysis of non-traditional programs only considers the coursework that is required before candidates become teachers of record, under the operating principle that teachers need to have this knowledge from the start. These programs can also earn a passing score if their candidates have to pass a strong licensing test specific to reading, prior to entering the classroom as the teacher of record.

The vast majority of non-traditional programs fail to provide adequate reading instruction or a passing score on a strong, reading-specific licensing test prior to their candidates becoming teachers of record. While many of these programs provide coursework in literacy, timing is a problem with their teachers already in classrooms.

6

The use of textbooks that reflect the science of reading is increasing.

Among the 725 textbooks required by programs reviewed in this edition, 40% are inadequate for the purposes of teaching the science of reading. Many texts still hold onto unproven practices, including references to authentic running record, and strategies for word solving. Some still include long-discredited three cuing systems for decoding, or promote the use of 'cloze reading' to teach students to guess words that would fit.4

While the number of textbooks used in reading courses remains exceptionally high (still seven times higher than the number used to teach elementary mathematics), there has been a significant decrease in the number of texts used by the full sample of programs, 130 fewer texts since the last Teacher Prep Review. The decrease could well be a healthy sign that teacher education may be achieving more consensus for the preparation of teachers in reading.

Promising practices

Exemplar Resources

We asked high-performing universities to provide exemplary syllabi that showcase their commitment to providing instruction on all five components of scientifically based reading instruction.

Idaho
Lewis-Clark State College
"Our literacy courses are designed to help our students gain a rich understanding in research based literacy instruction and assessment best practices through coursework and clinical experiences."
Learn more from this program.
North Carolina
Lenoir-Rhyne University
"One challenge to providing excellent reading instruction is helping teacher candidates understand the vast complexities involved in teaching reading."
Learn more from this program.
West Virginia
Marshall University
"With each new content topic - we learn by doing, teaching and practicing."
Learn more from this program.
Florida
CEEDAR Center
"Without reading proficiency, students have limited access to the content of every other academic subject."
Learn more from this resource.

Exemplary Programs

Programs that earn an "A" in Early Reading provide adequate instruction on all five components of reading instruction. Eighteen undergraduate elementary programs earn "A+" designations because their coursework includes, for each component of reading instruction, at least two class meetings with a primary focus on the component, at least one opportunity to demonstrate knowledge (test, writing assignments, or instructional experience), and the exclusive use of textbooks that accurately present the science of reading.

Arkansas
Arkansas Tech University
A+
Mississippi
Delta State University
A+
Utah
Dixie State University
A+
Tennessee
East Tennessee State University
A+
Texas
East Texas Baptist University
A+
Florida
Florida International University
A+
Massachusetts
Gordon College
A+
North Carolina
Lenoir-Rhyne University
A+
Alabama
Alabama A&M University
A
Arizona
Arizona State University
A
Tennessee
Austin Peay State University
A
California
Brandman University
A
California
California Polytechnic State University - San Luis Obispo
A
California
California State Polytechnic University - Pomona
A
California
California State University - Bakersfield
A
California
California State University - Chico
A
California
Alder Graduate School of Education: California Teacher Residency Program
A
Show More See all program scores
How We Scored

Evaluation relies on two sources of data:

  • Syllabi for all required courses within the program that address literacy instruction

  • All required textbooks for each required literacy course

Methodology in Brief

A team of analysts use course catalogs to determine the required coursework for each elementary program we are evaluating. Analysts then read course titles and descriptions to pinpoint courses that address reading instruction. Textbook information is gathered through syllabi and university bookstores.

A separate team of expert reading analysts — all professors and practitioners with advanced degrees and deep knowledge of how children learn to read — evaluate reading syllabi and textbooks using a detailed scoring protocol.

Fifteen percent of syllabi are randomly selected for a second evaluation to assess scoring variances. Each course is analyzed for its coverage of each of the five components of early reading instruction, as identified by the National Reading Panel (2000): phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and reading comprehension. Course analysis focuses on three main elements:

  • Use of course time to address each component, as specified by the lecture schedule.

  • Whether students are required to demonstrate knowledge of individual components through assessments, assignments, or instructional practice

  • If the assigned text or texts accurately present the components of reading instruction. Ratings of reviewed reading textbooks are provided here.

Reviewers analyze every required textbook for its coverage of the science of reading. The process of reviewing a book follows these steps:

  1. The reviewer ascertains if the text can be used either as a 'comprehensive' text (covering all five of the components as well as analyzing how the text approaches assessment and strategies for struggling readers), or if the text is designed only to teach one or a combination of the components, but not all ('specialized').

  2. The reviewer determines if the content defines and presents each component in light of the science, shedding old unproven practice and advancing a depth of knowledge not only about how students learn to read, but specifically how to teach students to read -- not just guide, encourage, or support.

  3. References are perused for primary sources, researchers, and trusted peer-reviewed journals that present the consensus around the science of reading.

Each of the five components is assessed separately within each course. Points awarded for use of course time, demonstration of knowledge, and text coverage are combined to create five separate component scores (phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and reading comprehension) for each course. If a program includes multiple reading courses, the program score for each component is determined by the highest course score for that component. The five program-level component scores are used to determine the overall grade.

Scoring with less information

Due to the critical importance of reading instruction, NCTQ developed a means of evaluating elementary programs on this standard in cases where course details are missing from submitted material or where we could not obtain all reading syllabi.

This process relies on two key sources of data:

  • The syllabus for at least one course focused on foundational literacy. The syllabi for peripheral courses that may touch on literacy instruction, but are not core foundational literacy courses, are never substituted.

  • The assigned textbooks for all required literacy coursework. Where this information cannot be sourced from a syllabus, we identify the required textbooks using the institution's bookstore.

If we cannot obtain both pieces of information, the program is not scored.

Non-traditional programs

Our analysis of non-traditional programs only considers the coursework that is required before candidates become teachers of record. Reading instruction is simply too important for teachers to be learning while on the job. To account for the limited time-frame to complete such coursework, we additionally consider the requirement of a passing score on a reading-specific licensing test prior to entering the classroom.

NCTQ regularly convenes reading experts — many of whom are researchers, faculty, and educators — to conduct a thorough review of every textbook used to teach aspiring teachers how to teach reading. These experts examine how well these textbooks adhere to the science of reading, which is rooted in 60+ years of research on what makes for the most effective reading instruction. Specifically, the experts evaluate how well each textbook covers the five critical components of reading: phonemic awareness, phonics, fluency, vocabulary, and comprehension. To see our database of textbook ratings, see here.

Three Categories

College-level texts used to prepare teachers to teach reading are grouped into three categories according to their content: Comprehensive texts, specialized texts, and overview texts.

  • Comprehensive texts cover a broad spectrum of reading instruction subjects and content. All five reading components should be addressed in comprehensive texts.

  • Specialized texts address a specific reading component, e.g., comprehension or a combination of reading components, but not all five.

  • Overview texts are supplemental materials that provide summary information on one or more reading components.

Texts that do not address reading instruction are categorized as not-applicable. Not-applicable texts may be devoted to teacher preparation in other important literacy areas such as literature appreciation, organizing small groups for reading, or classroom management.

Determining the Category

The initial categorization is established by reviewing the index for the presence of the key components: Phoneme (phonological) awareness, phonics (decoding, word analysis, word study), reading fluency, vocabulary (language development), and reading comprehension. If all five are included, the text will be rated as a comprehensive text. If one or a limited selection of the five components is found, the text will be rated as a specialized text. Texts are classified as an overview material if they summarize material on one or more components but do not provide in-depth materials on instruction or assessment. If none of the five components are included, yet the text is being used in a literacy course, it is categorized as not-applicable to the text review.

Rating the Text and Criteria

The expert reviewer determines if the text defines and presents each component in light of science, shedding unproven practices and advancing a depth of knowledge not only about how students learn to read, but how to teach students to read.

This evaluation leads to each text receiving one of the following ratings:

  • Exemplary Comprehensive Text

  • Acceptable Comprehensive Text

  • Not Acceptable Comprehensive Text

  • Acceptable Specialized Text

  • Not Acceptable Specialized Text

  • Acceptable Overview Text

  • Not Acceptable Overview Text

Acceptable texts cover components comprehensively, providing future teachers with an accurate, research-based understanding of what the component is, how to assess acquisition of the component, and how to teach the component using acceptable proven teaching methods. Comprehensive texts must contain this information for all five components, and some are categorized as Exemplary based on their level of quality.

Not Acceptable texts present inaccurate or unscientific information about the component definitions, how to assess acquisition of the component, and/or how to teach one or more components.

Programs are scored based on their coverage of the five components of reading instruction - phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary, comprehension, and fluency.

Traditional undergraduate and graduate program grades are determined as follows:

A+

A

B

C

D

F

Programs can earn an "A+" designation if, in addition to the requirements for earning an A, they exclusively assign textbooks that accurately present the science of reading.

The program provides adequate instruction on all five components of reading instruction.

The program provides adequate instruction on four components of reading instruction.

OR

When scoring with less information, the program is found to provide at least minimal instruction on four or more components.

The program provides adequate instruction on three components of reading instruction.

The program provides adequate instruction on two components of reading instruction.

OR

When scoring with less information, the program is found to provide at least minimal instruction on three or fewer components.

The program provides adequate instruction on one or none of the components of reading instruction.

Using the rubric below, coverage of each component is determined to be adequate with the accumulation of at least 6 points within a single course.

Category

Component

0 points

1 point

2 points

3 points

Support of Understanding (Maximum points: 3)

Textbook Coverage

None of required textbooks provide acceptable coverage of component.

At least one of the required textbooks provides acceptable coverage of component.

Instruction (Maximum points: 3)

Dedicated Lectures

No portion of any course meeting adequately addresses component.

Part of one course meeting adequately addresses component.

Intensive: Less than half of one course meeting adequately addresses component.

At least one, but less than two course meetings adequately address component.

Intensive: At least half, but less than one, course meeting adequately addresses component.

Two or more course meetings adequately address component.

Intensive: One or more course meetings adequately address component.

Demonstration of Knowledge (Maximum points: 3)

Quizzes, Tests, and Exams

Not required to demonstrate knowledge of component.

Required to demonstrate knowledge of component.

Writing Assignments

No graded writing assignments address component.

Part of one graded writing assignment addresses component.

One graded writing assignment addresses component.

More than one graded writing assignment addresses component.

Instructional Practice

No instructional practice is dedicated to component.

Part of one instructional practice session dedicated to component.

One instructional practice session dedicated to component.

More than one instructional practice session dedicated to component.

The grades for non-traditional programs are determined as follows, and considers only what is required prior to candidates becoming teachers of record:

A: Program requires coursework meeting the criteria for an A or B above and a passing score on an acceptable reading-specific licensing test.
B: Program requires coursework meeting the criteria for an A or B above or program requires a passing score on an acceptable reading-specific licensing test and coursework meeting the criteria for a C, D, or F above
C: Program requires a passing score on an acceptable reading-specific licensing test, but no coursework.
D: Program requires coursework that fails to meet the criteria for an A or B above.
F: Program either does not require coursework and a passing score on an acceptable reading-specific licensing exam is not required.

Over the past 60 years, scientists from many fields have worked to determine how people learn to read and why some people struggle. In 2000, the National Reading Panel released an exhaustive review of this research, identifying the five critical components of effective reading instruction which are the basis of this standard.5 If teachers were to routinely integrate these findings into instruction, it is estimated that the current failure rate of 20 to 30% could be reduced to the range of 2 to 10%.6 The What Works Clearinghouse (WWC) practice guide based on a comprehensive review of 56 studies that meet the WWC's rigorous research standards further validates the importance of instruction tailored to these five components.7 Preservice preparation that addresses the five essential components of effective reading instruction ensures that novice teachers will enter the classroom ready to teach reading well.

Despite this research on the five critical components of reading instruction, preparation in reading instruction appears to be inadequate. A study of a sample of 2,237 preservice teachers attending a nationally representative sample of 99 institutions that prepare teachers for initial certification found that, on average, the teacher candidates failed to have adequate knowledge of the five essential components of early reading instruction, correctly answering only 57% of items on a "knowledge assessment."8 Some evidence suggests that teacher candidates exhibit a greater understanding of these concepts when their required coursework focuses on them explicitly9 and when they are taught by instructors with relevant professional training.10

If state licensing tests rigorously assessed teacher knowledge of reading instruction, the imperative of evaluating programs would be lessened. However, only 16 states have developed strong assessments that measure future teachers' knowledge of the science of reading.11 For example, Massachusetts (the highest performing state in the country) has developed a rigorous assessment for elementary teachers focused solely on reading. Other states rely on either pedagogy tests or content tests that include items on reading instruction. Reading instruction is only a small part of most of these tests, so it is often possible to pass the tests without having adequate knowledge of the science of reading. This standard gains additional support from expert panels and school district superintendents, who agree that early reading is critical for elementary teachers. Finally, the Common Core State Standards for early elementary grades are explicitly aligned with the findings of the National Reading Panel.

References

  1. Shaywitz, B. A. (1997). The Yale Center for the Study of Learning and Attention: Longitudinal and Neurobiological Studies. Learning Disabilities: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 8(1), 21-29.

  2. Graduate programs are inclusive of both master's degree and post-baccalaureate programs not leading to a master's degree.

  3. Greenberg, J., & Dugan, N. (2015). Incoherent by Design: What You Should Know about Differences between Undergraduate and Graduate Training of Elementary Teachers. National Council on Teacher Quality. https://www.nctq.org/publications/Incoherent-By-Design

  4. A cloze passage presents sentences in which words are omitted and students are taught to guess a word that would fit. This ubiquitous practice is in direct conflict with how the brain actually interprets print.

  5. National Reading Panel. (2000). Report of the National Reading Panel--Teaching Children to Read: An Evidence-Based Assessment of the Scientific Research Literature on Reading and Its Implications for Reading Instruction. Washington, D.C.: National Institute of Child Health and Human Development.

  6. Lyon, G. R. (2003). Why do some children have difficulty learning to read? What can be done about it? Perspectives, 29(2).

  7. Foorman, B., Beyler, N., Borradaile, K., Coyne, M., Denton, C. A., Dimino, J., ... Wissel, S. (2016). Foundational skills to support reading for understanding in kindergarten through 3rd grade (NCEE 2016-4008). Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance (NCEE), Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved from the NCEE website: http://whatworks.ed.gov

  8. Salinger, T., et al. (2010). Study of teacher preparation in early reading instruction. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Evaluation and Regional Assistance, Institute of Education Sciences, U.S. Department of Education. Retrieved February 7, 2013, from https://ies.ed.gov/ncee/pubs/20104036/pdf/20104036.pdf

  9. Clark, S. K., Helfrich, S. R., & Hatch, L. (2015). Examining preservice teacher content and pedagogical content knowledge needed to teach reading in elementary school. Journal of Research in Reading, doi: 10.1111/1467-9817.12057.

  10. Binks-Cantrell, E., Washburn, E. K., Malatesha Joshi, R., & Hougen, M. (2012). Peter effect in the preparation of reading teachers. Scientific Studies of Reading, 16(6), 526-536.

  11. National Council on Teacher Quality. (2017). Teaching Reading national results. State Teacher Policy Database. [Data set]. Retrieved from: https://www.nctq.org/yearbook/national/Teaching-Reading-75

Symbol

Get More Updates On Our Research